Литература и комментарии
К главе 1 Что такое социальная психология?
1. MichenerJ. (1971). Kent State: What happened andwhy. New York: Random t House.
2. Clark, K. amp; Clark, M. (1947). Racial identification and preference in Negro children. In T.M.Newcomb amp; E.L. Hartley (Eds.), Reading? in social psychology (pp. 169- 178). New York: Holt.
3 . Harris, J. (1970). Hiroshima: A study in science, politics, and the ethics of war. Menio Park, CA: Addison-Wesley.
4. Powell, J.L. (1988). A test of the knew-it-all-along effect in the 1984 presidential and statewide elections. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 18, 760-773.
5. Michener, Kent State.
6. Ellen Berscheid; личное сообщение.
7. Zimbardo, P. (1971, October 25). The psychological power and pathology of imprisonment (p. 3). Statement prepared for the U.S. House of Representatives Committee on the Judiciary; Subcommittee No. 3: Hearings on Prison Reform, San Francisco, CA.
К главе 2 Конформность
1. Copyright c 1933, 1961 by James Thurber. From ‹The day the dam broke›, in My life and hard times (New York: Harper, 1933), pp. 41, 47. (Впервые напечатано в: New Yorker).
2. Schachter, S. (1951). Deviation, rejection, and communication. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 46, 190-207.
3. Kraglanski, A. W. amp; Webster, D.W. (1991). Group member's reaction to opinion deviates and conformists at varying degrees of proximity to decision deadline and of environmental noise. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61, 212-225.
4. Speer, A. (1970). Inside the Third Reich: Memoirs. (R. Winston amp; C.Winston, Trans.). New York: MacMillan.
5. Playboy, January 1975, p. 78.
6. Kruglansky, A. W. (1986, August). Freeze-think and the Challenger. Psychology Today, pp. 48-49.
7. Janis, 1.L. (1971, November). Groupthink. Psychology Today, pp. 43-46. Janis, 1.L. (1984). Counteracting the adverse effects of concurrence-seeking in policy-planning groups. In H. Brandstatter, J.H. Davis, amp; G. Stocker-Kreichgauer (Eds.), Group decision making. New York: Academic Press.
8. Asch, S. (1951). Effects of group pressure upon the modification and distortion of judgement. In M.H.Guetzkow (Ed.), Groups,leadership and men (pp. 117-190). Pittsburgh: Carnegie. Asch, S. (1956). Studies of independence and conformity: A minority of one against a unanimous majority. Psychological Monographs, 70 (9, Whole No. 416).
9. Wolosin, R., Sherman, S., amp; Cam, A. (1975). Predictions of own and other's conformity. Journal of Personality, 43, 357-378.
10. Deutsch, М., amp; Gerard, H. (1955). A study of normative and informational social influence upon individual judgement. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 51, 629-636.
11. Moulton, L., Blake, R., amp; Olmstead.J. (1956). The relationship between frequency of yielding and the disclosure of personal identity. Journal of Personality, 24, 339-347.
12. Argyle, М. (1957). Social pressure in public and private situations. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 54, 172-175.
13. Asch, S. (1955). Opinions and social pressure. Scientific American, 193 (5), 31-55. Morris, W., amp; Miller, R. (1975). The effects of consensus-preempting partners on reduction of conformity. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, II, 215-223. Boyanovsky, E., Alien, V., Bragg, B., amp; Lepinsky, J. (1981). Generalization of independence created by social support. Psychological Record, 31, 475-488.
14. Alien, V., amp; Levine, J. (1971). Social support and conformity: The role of independent assessment of reality. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 7, 48-58.
15. Deutsch amp; Gerard, Normative and informational social influence.
16. Mausner, B. (1954). The effects of prior reinforcement on the interaction of observed pairs. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 49, 65-68. Mausner, B. (1954). The effect on one's partner's success in a relevant task on the interaction of observed pairs. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 49, 557-560. Goldberg, S., amp; Lubin, A. (1958). Influence as a function of perceived judgement error. Human Relations, II, 275-281. Wiesenthal, D., Endler, N., Coward, Т., amp; Edwards, J. (1976). Reversibility of relative competence as a determinant of conformity across different perceptual tasks. Representative Research in Social Psychology, 7, 35-43.
17. Milgram, S. (1961). Nationality and conformity. Scientific American, 205(5), 45-51. Frager, R. (1970). Conformity and anticonformity in Japan. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 15,203-210.
18. Maccoby, E., amp; Jacklin, C. (1974). The psychology of sex differences. 268- 272). Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. Copper, H. (1979). Statistically combin-446 ing independent studies: A meta-analysis of sex differences in conformity research. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 131-146.
19. Eagly, A., amp; Carii, L. (1981). Sex of researchers and sex-typed communications as determinants of sex differences in influenceability: A meta-analysis of social influence studies. Psychological Bulletin, 90, 1-20. Javomisky, G. (1979). Task content and sex differences in conformity. Journal of Social Psychology, 108, 213-220. Feldman-Summers, S., Montana, D., Kaspinyk, D., amp; Wagner, B. (1980). Influence attempts when competing views are gender-related: Sex as credibility. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 5,311-320.
20. Schneider, F. (1970). Conforming behavior of black and white children. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 16, 466-471.
21. Allport, G. (1954). The nature of prejudice (pp. 13-14). Cambridge, MA: Addison-Wesley.
22. Dittes, J., amp; Kelley, H. (1956). Effects of different conditions of acceptance upon conformity to group norms. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 53, 100-107.
23. Bushman, B.J. (1988). The effects of apparel on compliance: A field experiment with a female authority figure. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 14, 459-467.
24. Festinger, L. (1954). Atheory of social comparison processes. Human Relations, 7, 117-140.
25. Mullen, В., Cooper, С., amp; Driskell, J.E. (1990). Jaywalking as a function of model behavior. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 16 (2), 320-330.
26. Aronson, E., amp; O'Leary, M. (1982-83). The relative effectiveness of models and prompts on energy conservation: A field experiment in a shower room. Journal of Environmental Systems, 12, 219-224.
27. Cialdini, R.B., Reno, R.R., amp; Kallgren, C.A. (1990). Afocus theory of normative conduct: Recycling the concept of norms to reduce littering in public places. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 1015-1029.
28. Ibid.
29. Schachter, S., amp; Singer, J. (1962). Cognitive, social, and physiological determinants of emotional state. Psychological Review, 69, 379-399.
30. James, W. (1890). Principles of psychology. New York: Smith.
31. Haney, C. (1984). Examining death qualification: Further analysis of the process effect. Law and Human Behavior, 8, 133-151.
32. Kelman, H. (1961). Processes of opinion change. Public Opinion Quarterly, 25, 57-78.
33. Kiesler, С., Zanna, M., amp; De Salvo, J. (1966). Deviation and conformity: Opinion change as a function of commitment, attraction, and presence of a deviate. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 3, 458-467.
34. Vogler, R., Weissbach, Т., Compton, J., amp; Martin, G. (1977). Integrated behavior change techniques for problem drinkers in the community. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 45, 267-279. Kuetner, С., Lichtenstein, E., andMees, H. (1968). Modification of smoking behavior: A review. Psychological Bulletin, 70, 520-533.
35. Milgram, S. (1963). Behavioral study of obedience. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 67, 371-378. Milgram, S. (1965). Some conditions of obedience and disobedience to authority. Human Relations, 18, 57-76. Milgram, S. (1974). Obedience to authority. New York: Harper amp; Row.
36. Elms, A.C., amp; Milgram, S. (1966). Personality characteristics associated with obedience and defiance toward authoritative command. Journal of Experimental Research in Personality, 1, 282-289.
37. Kilham, W., amp; Mann, L. (1974). Level of destructive obedience as a function of transmitter and executant roles in the Milgram obedience paradigm. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 29, 696-702. Shanab, M., amp; Yahya, K. (1977). Abehavio-ral study of obedience in children. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35, 530-536. Miranda, KB., Caballero, R.B., Gome?., M.G., amp;Zamorano, M.M. (1981). Obedience to authority. Psiqui^: Revista de Psiquiatria, Psicologiay Psicosomatica, 12, 212- 221. Mantell, D. (1971). The potential forviolence in Germany. Journal of Social Issues, 27, 101-112.
38. Milgram, S. (1974). Obedience to authority. New York: Harper amp; Row. Sheridan, C., amp; King, R. (1972, August). Obedience to authority with an authentic victim. Paper presented at the convention of the American Psychological Association.
39. Milgram, S. (1965). Liberating effects of group pressure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1, 127-134.
40. Milgram, S. (1965), Some conditions of obedience and disobedience to authority. Human Relations, 18, 57-76.
41. Milgram, S. (1965). Liberating effects of group pressure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 127-134.
42. Rosenthal, A.M. (1964), Thirty-eight witnesses. New York: McGraw-Hill.
43. Korte, C., amp; Kerr, N. (1975). Response to altruistic opportunities in urban and nonurban settings. Journal of Social Psychology, 95, 183-184. Rushton, J.P. (1978). Urban density and altruism: Helping strangers in a Canadian city, suburb, and small town. Psychological Reports, 43, 987-990.
44. Darley, J., Latane, B. (1968). Bystander intervention in emergencies: Diffusion of responsibility. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 8, 377-383. Latane, В., amp; Darley, J. (1968). Group inhibition of bystander intervention in emergencies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 10, 215-221. Latane, В., amp; Rodin, J. (1969). A lady in distress: Inhibiting effects of friends and strangers on bystander intervention. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 5,189-202.
45. Latane, В., amp; Nida, S. (1981). Ten years of research on group size and helping. Psychological Bulletin, 89,308-324.
46. Latane amp; Rodin, Lady in distress.
47. Darley amp; Latane, Bystander intervention.
48. Piliavin, 1., Rodin, J., amp; Piliavin, J. (1969). Good samaritanism: An underground phenomen? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 13, 289-299.
49. Bickman, L. (1971). The effect of another bystander's ability to help on bystander intervention in an emergency. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 7, 367-379. Bickman, L. (1972). Social influence and diffusion of responsibility in an emergency. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 8, 438-445.
50. Piliavin, J., amp; Piliavin, E. (1972). The effect of blood on reactions to a victim. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 23, 353-361.
51. Darley, J., amp; Batson, D. (1973). ‹From Jerusalem to Jericho›: A study of situational and dispositional variables in helping behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 27,100-108.
52. dark III, R., amp; Word, L. (1972). Why don't bystander help? Because of ambiguity? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 24, 392-400. Solomon, L., Solomon, ff., amp; Stone, R. (1978). Helping as a function of number of bystanders and ambiguity of emergency. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 4, 318-321.
53. Baron, R.A. (1970). Magnitude of model's apparent pain and ability to aid the model as determinants of observer reaction time. Psychonomic Science, 21, 196-197.
54. Suedfeld, P., Bochner, S., amp; Wnek, D. (1972). Helper-sufferer similarity and a specific request for help: Bystander intervention during a peace demonstration. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 2,17-23.
К главе 3 Массовая коммуникация, пропаганда и процесс убеждения
1. АВС to air major nuclear war film. (1983, September). Report from Ground Zero, J(l), 1-2.
2. Schofield, J. W., amp; Pavelchak, M.A. (1989). Fallout from ‹The Day After›: The impact of a TV film on attitudes related to nuclear war. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 19,433-448.
3. Newsweek, June 2, 1974, p. 79. O'Connor, J.J. (1974, March 10). They sell all kinds of drugs on television. The New York Times, p. D15.
4. Roberts, C. (1993). Special Report, National Public Radio, Morning Edition, September 3, 1993.
5. Mark Levy, цит. по: Time, October 1, 1979, p. 83.
6. Mann, P., amp; Iscoe, 1. (1971). Mass behavior and community organization: Reflections on a peaceful demonstration. American Psychologist, 26, 108-113,
7. St. Petersburg (Florida) Times, October 21, 1982. The (Nashville) Tennes-seean, October 31, 1982.
8. Newsbank, October 1982, Vol. 19, p. 1.
9. Phillips,D.P., amp; Carstensen.L.L. (1986). Clustering of teenage suicides after television news stories about suicide. New England Journal of Medicine, 315, 685-689.
10. Phillips, D.P. (1979). Suicide, motor vehicle fatalities, and the mass media: Evidence toward a theory of suggestion. American Journal of Sociology, 84, 1150-1174.
11. McGinness, J. (1970). The selling of the president: 1968 (p. 160). New York: Pocket Books.
12. Lyle, J., amp; Hoffman, ff. (1971). Explorations in patterns of television viewing by preschool-age children. In J.P. Murray, E.A.Robinson, amp; G.A.Comstock (Eds.). Television and social behavior (Vol. 4, pp. 257-344). Rockville, MD: National Institutes of Health.
13. Lyle, J., amp; Hoffman, H. (1971). Children's use of television and other media. In J.P. Murray, E.A. Robinson, and G.M. Comstock (Eds.), Television and social behavior (Vol. 4, pp. 129-256). Rockville, MD: National Institutes of Health.
14. Bern, D. (1970). Beliefs, attitudes, and human affairs. Belmont, CA: Brooks/ Cole.
15. Zajonc, R. (1968). The attidudinal effects of mere exposure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Monograph Supplement, 9, 1-27.
16. Crush, J., McKeough, К., amp;Ahlering, R. (1978). Extrapolating laboratory exposure research to actual political elections. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 257-270.
17. Crush, J.E. (1980). Impact of candidate expenditures, regionality, and prior outcomes on the 1976 presidential primaries. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38,337-347.
18. White, J.E. (1988, November 14). Bush's most valuable player. Time, pp. 20-21.
19. Rosenthal, A. (1988, October 24). Foes accuse Bush campaign of inflaming racial tension. The New York Times, pp. Al, B5. Pandora's box (1988, October). The New Republic, pp. 4, 45.
20. Tolchin, M. (1988, October 12). Study says 53.000 get prison furloughs in '87, and few did harm. The New York Times, p. A23.
21. Pratkanis, A.R., amp; Aronson, E. (1992). The age of propaganda: The everyday use and abuse of persuasion. New York: W.H. Freeman.
22. Pratkanis, A.R. (1993). Propaganda and persuasion in the 1992 U.S. presidential election: What are the implications for a democracy? Current World Leaders, 36, 341-361.
23. Zimbardo, P., Ebbesen, E., amp; Maslach, C. (1977). Influencing attitudes and changing behavior (2nd ed.). Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
24. Petty, R.E., amp; Cacioppo, J.T. (1986). The elaboration likelihood model of persuasion. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (pp. 123- 205). Hillside, NJ: Eribaum.
25. Aristotle (1954). Rhetoric. In W. Roberts (Trans.), Aristotle, rhetoric and poetics (p. 25). New York: Modern Library. Рус. пер. — ‹Риторика Аристотеля›. Пер. И. Платоновой. СПб., 1894. Балашов и К°.
26. Hovland, С., amp; Weiss, W. (1951). The influence of source credibility on communication effectiveness. Public Opinion Quarterly, 15, 635-650.
27. Aronson, E., amp; Golden, B. (1962). The effect of relevant and irrelevant aspects of communicator credibility on opinion change. Journal of Personality, 30, 135-146.
28. Walster(Hatfield), E., Aronson, E., amp; Abrahams, D. (1966). On increasing the persuasiveness of a low prestige communicator. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 2,325-342.
29. Eagly, A., Wood, W., amp; Chaiken, S. (1978). Causal inferences about communicators and their effect on opinion change. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 424-435.
30. Santa Cru^ Sentinel, January 13, 1987, p. A8.
31. Walster(Hatfield), E., amp; Festinger, L. (1962). The effectiveness of ‹overheard› persuasive communications. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 65, 395-402.
32. Mills, J., amp; Aronson, E. (1965). Opinion change as a function of communicator's attractiveness and desire to influence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1,173-177.
33. Eagly, A., amp; Chaiken, S. (1975). An attribution analysis of the effect of communicator characteristics on opinion change: The case of communicator attractiveness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32, 136-144.
34. Hartmann, G. (1936). A field experience on the comparative effectiveness of ‹emotional› and ‹rational› political leaflets in determining election results. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 31, 336-352.
35. Leventhal, Н. (1970). Findings and theory in the study of fear communications. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 5, pp. 119- 186). New York: Academic Press.
36. Leventhal, Н., Meyer, D., amp; Neren^, D. (1980). The common sense representation of illness danger. In S. Rachman (Ed.), Contributions to medical psychology (Vol. 2). New York: Pergamon Press.
37. Time, February 16, 1987, pp. 50-53.
38. San Francisco Chronicle, June 19, 1987, p. 9.
39. Leishman, К. (1987, February). Heterosexuals and AIDS. The Atlantic Monthly, pp. 39-58.
40. Liberman, A., amp; Chaiken, S. (1992). Defensive processing of personally relevant health messages. Personality and Social Psychology, 18, 669-679.
41. dark III, R.D. (1990). The impact of AIDS on gender differences in willingness to engage in casual sex. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 20, 771-782.
42. Leishman, К. (1987, February). The Atlantic Monthly. Heterosexuals and AIDS, p. 44.
43. Williams, S.S., Kimble, D.L., Cowell, N.H., Weiss, L.H., Newton, K.J., Fisher, J.D., amp; Fisher, W.A. (1992). College students use implicit personality theory instead of safe sex. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 22, 921-933.
44. Hirschom, M. (1987, April 29). AIDS not seen as a major threat by heterosexuals on campuses. Chronicle of Higher Education.
45. Aronson, E. (1989). Excuses, excuses, excuses: Why sexually active college students do not use condoms. Invited address, meeting of the Western Psychological Association, 1989.
46. Aronson, E. (1991). How to persuade sexually active college students to use condoms. Invited address, meeting of the American Psychological Association, San Francisco, California.
47. Nisbett, R., Borgida, E, Crandall, R., amp; Reed, Н. (1976). Popular introduction: Information is not always informative. In J.S. Carroll and J.W. Payne (Eds.), Cognition and social behavior^. 227-236). Hilisdale, NJ: Eribaum. Nisbett, R., amp; Ross, L. (1980). Human inference: Strategies and shortcomings of social judgement. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Hamill, R., DeCamp Wllson, Т., amp; Nisbett, R. (1980). Insensiv-ity to sample bias: Generalizing from atypical cases. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 578-589. Шелли Тейлор, социальный психолог-когнитивист, утверждает, что эффект ‹яркости› не подтверждается большинством экспериментальных результатов. Обсуждение этой темы — см.: Taylor, S., amp; Thompson, S. (1982). Stalking the elusive ‹vividness› effect. Psychological Review, 89, 155-181.
48. Gonzales, M.H., Aronson, E., amp; Costanzo, M. (1988). Increasing the effectiveness of energy auditors: A field experiment. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 18, 1049- 1066.
49. Hovland, С., Lumsdain, A., amp; Sheffield, F. (1949). Experiments on mass communications. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
50. Miller, N., amp; Campbell, D. (1959). Recency and primacy in persuasion as a function of the timing of speeches and measurements. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 59,1-9.
51. Zimbardo, P. (1960). Involvement and communication discrepancy as determinants of opinion conformity. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 60, 86-94.
52. Whittaker, J.O. (1963). Opinion change as a function of communication-attitude discrepancy. Psychological Reports, 13, 763-772.
53. Hovland, С., Harvey, O.J., amp; Sherif, M. (1957). Assimilation and contrast effects in reaction to communication and attitude change. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 55,244-252.
54. Aronson, E., Turner, J., amp; Carlsmith, J.M. (1963). Communication credibility and communication discrepancy as determinants of opinion change. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 67,31-36.
55. Zellner, M. (1970). Self-esteem, reception, and influenceability. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 15, 87-93.
56. Janis, I.J., Kaye, D., amp; Kirschner, P. (1965). Facilitating effects of ‹eating-while-reading› on responsiveness to persuasive communication. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1, 181-186.
57. Hass, R.G., amp; Grady, K. (1975). Temporal delay, type of forewarning, and resistance to influence. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, II, 459-469.
58. Freedman, J., amp; Sears, D. (1965). Warning, distraction, and resistance to influence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 7, 262-266.
59. Brehm, J. (1966). A Theory of Psychological Reactance. New York: Academic Press.
60. Bensley, L.S., amp; Wu, R. (1991). The role ofpsychological reactance in drinking following alcohol prevention messages. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 21, 1111-1124.
61. Heilman, M. (1976). Oppositional behavior as a function of influence attempt intensity and retaliation threat. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 33, 574- 578.
62. Petty, R., amp; Cacioppo, J. (1977). Forewarning, cognitive responding, and resistance to persuasion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35, 645-655.
63. Festinger, L., amp; Maccoby, N. (1964). On resistance to persuasive communications. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 68, 359-366.
64. Sloan, L., Love,R., amp; Ostrom, T. (1974). Political heckling: Who really loses? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 30, 518-525.
65. McGuire, W., amp; Papageorgis, D. (1961). The relative efficacy ofvarious types of prior belief-defense in producing immunity against persuasion. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 62, 327-337.
66. McAlister, A., Perry, С., Killen, J., Slinkard, L.A., amp; Maccoby, N. (1980). Pilot study of smoking, alcohol and drug abuse prevention. American Journal of Public Health, 70,719-721.
67. Pryor, В., amp; Steinfatt, W. (1978). The effects of initial belief level on inoculation theory and its proposed mechanisms. Human Communications Research, 4, 217-230.
68. Canon, L. (1964). Self-confidence and selective exposure to information. In L. Festinger (Ed.), Conflict, desision, and dissonance (pp. 83-96). Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
69. TV violence for a new generation (1987). TV Monitor (p. 2). San Francisco: The Children's Television Resource and Education Center.
70. Статистика взята из: Pratkanis, A.R., amp; Aronson, E. (1992). Age of propaganda: The everyday use and abuse of persuasion. New York: W.H. Freeman.
71. Liebert, R. (1975, July 16). Testimony before the Subcommittee on Communications of the House Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce.
72. San Francisco Chronicle, August 25, 1979, p. 15. San Francisco Sunday Examiner and Chronicle, August 26, 1979, p. 2. San Jose Mercury-News, February II, 1982, p. A2.
73. Gerbner, G., Gross, L., Morgan, M., amp; Signorelli, N. (1986). Living with television: The dynamics of the cultivation process. In J. Bryant amp; D. Zillman (Eds.), Perspectives on media effects (pp. 17-40). Hilisdale, NJ: Eribaum.
74. Цит. по: Newsweek, December 6, 1982, p. 140.
75. Haney, С., amp; Manwlati, /.(1981). Television criminology: Network illusions of criminal justice realities. In Readings about the social animal (6th ed., pp. 120-131). San Francisco: W.H. Freeman.
76. Hennigan, K., Heath, L., Wharton, J.D., DelRosario, M., Cook, Т., amp; Colder, B. (1982). Impact of the introduction of television on crime in the United States: Empirical findings and theoretical implications. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42, 461-477.
77. Ronis,D.,Baumgardner, M., Leippe, M.,Cacioppo, J., amp; Greenwald, A. (1977). In search of reliable persuasion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35, 548-569.
К главе 4 Социальное познание
1. Lippmann,W. (\911).Public opinion.New York: Harcourt, Brace, amp; Co.
2. Именно в те времена возник обычай, согласно которому мужчина должен был идти так, чтобы ‹прикрывать› женщину от проезжей части улицы. В эпоху средневековья подобный обычай казался вполне осмысленным: сапоги мужчины, если их забрызгает грязью, было легче отчистить, чем платье женщины.
3. Panati, С. (1987). Extraordinary origins of everyday things. New York: Harper amp; Row.
4. Gilovich, T. (1991). How we know what isn 't so. New York: Free Press.
5. Bentham, J. (1876/1948). A fragment on government and an introduction to the principles of morals and legislation.Oxford: Blackwell.Pyc.nep, — Избранные сочинения Иеремии Бентама. Т. 1. Спб., Русская книжная торговля. 1867, Современную версию ‹калькуляции блага› — см.: Fishbein, M., amp;.А^еп, J. (1975). Belief, attitude, intention, and behavior: An introduction to theory and research. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
6. Kelley, H.H. (1967), Attribution theory in social psychology. In D. Levine (Ed.), Nebraska symposium on motivation (Vol. 15, pp. 192-241). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. Kelley, H.H. (1973). The process of causal attribution. American Psychologist, 28, 107-128.
7. Высказывается интересная мысль о том, что даже ученые не всегда мыслят как ученые, подпадая под действие тех предрассудков, которые описаны в данной главе. CM. Greenwald, A. G., Pratkanis, A. R., Leippe, M.R., amp; Baumgardner, M.H. (1986). Under what conditions does theory obstruct research process? Psychological Review, 93, 216-229.
8. Fiske, S. Т., amp; Taylor, S.E. (1991). Social cognition. New York: McGraw-Hill.
9. Bronowski, J. (1973). The ascent of man. Boston: Little, Brown, Co. Pratkanis, A.R., amp; Aronson, E. (1991). The age of propaganda: The everyday use and abuse of persuasion. New York: W.H. Freeman.
10. Pratkanis, A.R., Farquhar, P.H., Silbert, S., amp; Hearst, J. (1989). Decoys produce contrast effects and alter choice probabilities. University of California, Santa Cruz.
11. Kenrick, D. Т., amp; Guttieres, S.E. (1980). Contrast effects in judgements of attractiveness: When beauty becomes a social probern. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38,131-140.
12. Higgins, E.T., Rholes, W.S., amp; Jones, C.R. (1977). Category accessibility and impression formation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 13, 141-154.
13. Heath, L., Acklin, M., amp; Wiley, K. (1991). Cognitive heuristics and AIDS risk assessment among physicians. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21, 1859- 1867.
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65. Ответы: стадион ‹Форбс› в Питтсбурге, Вильнюс и 4 июля 1826 года.
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К главе 5 Самооправдание
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К главе 8 Симпатия, любовь и межличностная сенситивность
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74. Skotko, P.К. (1981). The relation between interpersonal attraction and measures of self-disclosure. Journal of Social Psychology, 72, 311- 312. Archer, R., amp; Burle-son,J. (1980).The effects of timing of self-disclosure on attraction and reciprocity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38, 120-130. Taylor, D., Gould, R., amp; Brounstein, P. (1981). Effects of personalistic self-disclosure. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 7,437-492. IS.Kahn, M. (1971). Sensitivity training at Kresge College. Unpublished manuscript.
К главе 9 Социальная психология как наука
1. Richard Feynman. The best mind since Einstein. Nova, KQED, December 21, 1993.
2. Симонов П.В. Личное сообщение.
3. Gabler, N. (1993). Persona goeth before a fall. New York Times, December 12,
section 2, p. I.
4. Ibid, p. 1.
5. Ibid, p. 34.
6. Nisbett, R., amp; Winston, T. (1977). Telling more than we know: Verbal reports on mental processes. Psychological Review, 84, 231-259.
7. Aronson, E., Wllleiman, В., amp; Floyd, J. (1966). The effect of a pratfall on increasing interpersonal attractiveness. Psychonomic Science, 4, 227-228.
8. Aronson, E., amp; Mills, J. (1959). The effect of severity of initiation on liking for agroup. JoumalofAbnormaland Social Psychology, 59, 177-181.
9. Liebert, R., amp; Baron, R. (1972). Some immediate effects of televised violence on children's behavior. Developmental Psychology, 6, 469-475.
10. Aronson, E., amp; Carlsmith, J.M. (1969). Experimentation in social psychology. In G. Lindzey and E. Aronson (Eds.), Handbook of Social Psychology, 2nd Edition, Vol.
11. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1-79. CM. также: Aronson, E., Brewer, M., amp; Carls-mith, J.M. (1985). Experimentation in social psychology. In G. Lindzey and E. Aronson (Eds.), Handbook of social psychology, 3d Edition (Vol. I, pp. 441-486). Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
12. Milgram, S. (1963). Behavioral study of obedience. JoumalofAbnormaland Social Psychology, 67,371-378.
13. Aronson, E., Sigall, H., amp; Van Hoose, T. (1970). The cooperative subject: Myth or reality? Journal of Experimental and Social Psychology, 6, 1-10.
14. Asch, S. (1951). Effects of group pressure upon the modification and distortion of judgement. In M.H.Guetzkow (Ed.), Groups,leadership,and men (pp. 177- 190). Pittsburgh: Carnegie. Asch, S. (1951). Studies of independence and conformity: A minority of one against a unanimous majority. Psychological Monographs, 70(9, Whole No. 416).
15. Dawes, R., McTavish, J., amp; Shaklee, H. (1977). Behavior, communication, and assumptions about other people's behavior in a common dilemma situation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35, I-Il.
16. Asch, Effects of group pressure.
17. Aronson, E., amp; Mettee, D. (1968). Dishonest behavior as a function of differential levels of induced self-esteem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 9, 121- 127.
18. Milgram, S. (1963). Behavioral study of obedience. JoumalofAbnormaland Social Psychology, 67,371-378.
19. Zimbardo, P. (1971, October 25). The psychological power and pathology of imprisonment (p. 3). Statement prepared for the U.S. House of Representatives Committee on the Judiciary; Subcommittee No. 3: Hearings on Prison Reform, San Francisco, CA.
20. Bickman, L., amp; Zarantonello, M. (1978). The effects of deception and level of obedience on subjects' ratings of the Milgram study. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 4,81-85.
21. Milgram, S. (1964). Issues in the study of obedience: A reply to Baumrind. American Psychologist, 19,848-852.
22. Aronson, E. (1966). Avoidance ofinter-subject communication. Psychological Reports, 19,238.
* В настоящем издании подстрочно приводятся примечания переводчика, сноска на которые дается звездочкой. Цифры отсылают к литературе и комментариям автора, которые помещены в конце книги. Примечания научного редактора, а также автора книги приводятся подстрочно. Они имеют специальные пометки — "Примеч. научного редактора" и "Примеч. автора". Сноска на них также дается звездочкой.
* Звездочки различного цвета — форма поощрения, принятая в ряде американских начальных школ.
* Английский термин "attitude", обозначающий словесную оценку человеком некоторого предмета или явления, здесь и далее переводится словом "аттитьюд". Распространенный в литературе перевод этого термина словами "социальная установка" не вполне адекватен. Выбирая вариант перевода, надо считаться с тем, что в психологии термин "установка" используется для описания совсем иных явлений, а добавление к этому термину слова "социальная" часто противоречит смыслу аттитьюдных феноменов. — Примеч. научного редактора.
* Неофициальный лозунг американских рекламных агентов, смысл которого: ‹Сначала выкинем товар на рынок, а там видно будет›.
* ‹Groupthink› в тексте оригинала — неологизм, часто встречающийся без перевода и в отечественной специальной литературе. Поскольку сам автор признавал, что к введению этого термина его ‹подтолкнул› Джордж Оруэлл со своим знаменитым ‹двоемыслием› (так в русском издании его книги ‹1984› переводится слово ‹doublethink›), слово ‹группомыслие› показалось мне более точным и богатым ассоциациями вариантом перевода.
* Автор книги приводит пример, относящийся к бейсболу. Поскольку правила этой сугубо американской игры мало знакомы русскому читателю, я ‹перевел› ситуацию на футбольное поле, не нарушая ее социально-психологической сути.
* Freedonia в тексте оригинала
* Moot courtrooms — специально оборудованные и декорированные помещения в американских юридических школах. Они предназначены для обучения будущих юристов в обстановке, максимально приближенной к их сфере деятельности.
* У нас этот эпизод более известен как трагедия Сонгми.
.
* Заповедник на севере Калифорнии.
* Евангельский персонаж, упоминание которого стало синонимом бескорыстия и благотворительности.
* Ключевыми для данной главы являются слова ‹mass communication› — ‹массовая коммуникация› или ‹массовое общение›. Соответственно термины ‹mass media› и ‹media› мы переводим как ‹средства массовой коммуникации›. В отечественной литературе обычно используют термин ‹средства массовой информации›, что по смыслу менее точно. — Примеч. научного редактора.
* ‹Прайм-тайм› (‹prime-time›) — наиболее выгодное в плане привлечения максимальной аудитории телевизионное время.
** Коммуникаторы — индивиды, группы или организации, которые производят сообщения и передают их по каналам средств массовой информации. — Примеч. научного редактора.
* Центральные (‹деловые›) районы крупных американских городов с наступлением темноты превращаются для пешеходов в самые опасные и рискованные.
* Furlough program — специальная программа предоставления увольнительных, применяемая в американской пенитенциарной системе для поощрения тех заключенных, которые примерным поведением демонстрируют свое исправление, и названная так по аналогии с армейскими увольнительными.
* ‹Consumer Reports› — популярнеиший американский журнал с более или менее объективной (независимой) оценкой потребительских товаров, представленных на рынке: миллионы американцев советуются с ним перед тем, как сделать покупку.
* ‹Wheel of Fortune› — популярное американское телешоу, прототип передачи ‹Поле чудес›, которая почти точно копирует свой американский оригинал.
* Следует отметить, что исследование Гербнера носит корреляционный, а не экспериментальный характер. Поэтому невозможно определить, действительно ли долгое время, проведенное у телеэкрана, вызывает у людей предрассудки и ошибочные убеждения, или же, наоборот, люди, у которых они уже есть, просто имеют тенденцию проводить у телевизоров больше времени. Чтобы сделать свои выводы о наличии корреляций более доказательными. Гербнер и его сотрудники составили выборки телезрителей, в которых были представлены люди всех возрастных категорий, имеющие различные уровни образования, достатка, а также относящиеся к различным этническим группам. После того как все эти характеристики телезрителей были приняты во внимание, исследователи убедились в том, что их вывод относительно того. что. чем больше времени люди проводят перед экраном телевизора, тем более ошибочными будут их представления о реальной жизни, справедлив для всех категорий телезрителей. — Примеч. автора.
* Выражаю признательность моему другу и коллеге Энтони Р.Пратканису за составление первоначального варианта этой главы. — Примеч. автора.
* Прайминг (priming) — термин, который в данном контексте обозначает процесс, хорошо известный в отечественной психологии как формирование (фиксирование) установки; этот процесс обстоятельно изучен в трудах грузинской психологической школы Д.Н. Узнадзе. ‹Прайминг› и ‹формирование установки› мы будем использовать в качестве синонимов. — Примеч. научного редактора.
* Three-Mile Island — американская АЭС. на которой 28 марта 1979 г. произошла серьезная авария.
* Yuppie (от young professional — молодой профессионал) — общепринятый американский термин, обозначающий профессионально и карьерно ориентированного молодого человека — антипода хиппи.
* В американских университетах широко распространена и закреплена традицией система как мужских ‹братств› (fraternities), так и аналогичных женских ‹сестринских› союзов (sororities). которые мы обозначаем словом ‹община›.
* Основатель секты, созданной по принципу ‹семьи› хиппи, организатор зверского и немотивированного убийства в 1969 г. кинозвезды Шарон Тейт и ее гостей; осужден на пожизненное заключение.
** Легендарный вампир из Трансильвании. нашедший литературное воплощение в романе Брэма Стокера, а после завоевания киноэкрана превратившийся в культовый образ ‹фильмов ужасов›.
*** Читатель должен заметить принципиальную разницу между данным экспериментом и тем, что был проведен Хиггинсом и другими (см. его обсуждение выше в этой же главе). В эксперименте Хиггинса исследователи формировали у испытуемых установку на определенную категорию качеств — их ‹отрицательность›, и это влияло на наблюдателей таким образом, что они начинали рассматривать последующие двусмысленные стимулы (типа Дональда) в более негативном свете просто потому, что именно на поиск негатива у них и формировали установку. В эксперименте же Херра исследователи проводили прайминг испытуемых в отношении конкретных примеров враждебности (Гитлер). И в этом случае сработал эффект контраста: по сравнению с предельно враждебными персонажами, двусмысленный персонаж (Дональд) начинал выглядеть этаким плюшевым медвежонком. — Примеч. автора.
* Талоны на питание, выдаваемые безработным в рамках социальной помощи.
* Знаменитый американский театральный и цирковой импрессарио XIX в., создатель сети цирков Барнума.
* Из предыдущей главы (‹Социальное познание›) мы узнали, что убеждения и аттитыоды не всегда являются хорошими предсказателями поведения человека, то есть поведение не всегда согласуется с соответствующими убеждениями и аттитьюдами. В данной главе мы хотим подчеркнуть, что большинство людей считает, что их убеждения и аттитыоды должны быть в согласии с реальным поведением. А потому люди стремятся оправдать свое поведение, когда оно все же противоречит аттитьюдам. — Примеч. автора.
* Тектонический разрыв, проходящий под территорией почти всего штата Калифорния и в неопределенном будущем грозящий геологической катастрофой, в результате которой часть территории штата может ‹отколоться› и уйти под воду.
* Братья Гручо. Харпо, Чико и Зеппо Марксы — популярные американские актеры-комики 30-х годов.
* Город в штате Коннектикут на северо-востоке США, где находится престижный Йельский университет.
* Крайне консервативная женская общественная организация в США — блюстители морали и традиционных американских ценностей.
* Следует отметить, что в данном эксперименте, так же как и в других обсуждаемых в данной главе экспериментах, все испытуемые после его окончания прошли собеседование, на котором им объяснили суть проводимых исследований. Были предприняты все способы противодействия закреплению аттитыодных изменений, происшедших в процессе проведения эксперимента. Постэксперимен-тальное собеседование следует проводить после окончания всякого эксперимента, но особенно необходимо это делать, когда возникают изменения важных аттитьюдов или тех, которые существенно влияют на реальное поведение. — Примеч. автора.
* Члены американских студенческих братств часто вскладчину снимают один или несколько домов в университетском городке, а не живут в университетских общежитиях.
* Внимательный читатель может заметить связь между этим исследованием и еще одним, рассмотренным ранее в этой главе. Речь идет об эксперименте, в котором люди, нарушавшие данные себе самим обещания на Новый год, чувствовали себя скверно и поэтому позже всячески принижали важность данных зароков. Я предположил тогда, что альтернативным методом уменьшения диссонанса, связанного с неудачей в выполнении намеченного плана, может быть включение индивидом следующего механизма: надо менее жестко определить понятие ‹успех› путем введения, например, понятия ‹частичный успех›. Однако исследование Конвея и Росса предлагает еще одну альтернативу: например, если кто-то пытается бросить курить и не достигает успеха ни в снижении количества выкуренных задень сигарет, ни в полном отказе от них, то вызванный данной неудачей диссонанс все-таки может быть уменьшен: курильщику следует ‹забыть›, как много сигарет он выкуривал до того, как начал бороться с этой привычкой. — Примеч. автора.
* Напомню, в каких двух случаях диссонанс может быть вызван ударом по Я-концепции: 1) когда мы осознанно делаем что-то глупое, неразумное и 2) когда мы делаем что-то, приносящее вред другому человеку. В первом случае, если вам легко задать себе вопрос: ‹Откуда мне было знать?› — диссонанс будет невелик, тогда как во втором случае факт нанесения вреда другому человеку делает невозможным избежать диссонанса с помощью подобного вопроса. — Примеч. автора.
* Следует, однако, заметить, что полученным результатам можно дать и альтернативные объяснения. Дело в том, что живущие в непосредственной близости от атомной станции и Три-майл-Айленде могут существенным образом отличаться от тех. кто жил в отдалении от нес. Например, сам факт, что люди выбрали для проживания именно это место — вблизи от ядерного реактора, может служить убедительным отражением их более позитивных аттитыодов в отношении атомной энергетики. Следовательно, живущие рядом со станцией люди и до инцидента могли с большей вероятностью воспринимать Комиссию по контролю за атомной энергией как организацию, заслуживающую доверия, чем те люди, которые жили поодаль. — Примеч. автора.
* Намек на знакомый каждому американскому школьнику эпизод времен Войны за независимость, когда кавалеристы под командованием офицера Пола Ревира в ночь на 18 апреля 1775 г. совершили беспримерный марш-бросок, успев предупредить патриотов, что англичане идут на город Конкорд с целью уничтожить главный арсенал восставших.
* Напомним, что в американском футболе данное поведение не является исключительным. оно разрешено правилами, более того, составляет саму сущность игры.
* Все американские фильмы получают специальную разрешительную рубрикацию, касающуюся возраста аудитории. Категория R означает, что дети до 17 лет могут смотреть данный фильм только в сопровождении родителя или любого взрослого: категория Х (ныне замененная другой — NC 17) означает фильм, на который дети до 17 лет не допускаются ни при каких условиях.
* Район компактного проживания чернокожих жителей Лос-Анджелеса, до недавнего времени типичное ‹негритянское гетто›, место массовых волнении в 1965 г.
* ‹Separate but equal› — принцип, оправдывавший расовую сегрегацию в американских школах, процесс отмены которой начался в середине 1950-х годов.
* Спешу добавить, что эти данные получены в результате эксперимента со студентами, которым были предложены некоторые гипотетические ситуации. А из этого следует, что, взятые сами по себе, эти данные не доказывают, что официальные лица, от которых зависит решение о досрочном освобождении, ведут себя точно так же. Однако описанный эксперимент ‹Зейс/яви-тельпо демонстрирует, что когнитивная тенденциозность присуща даже умным и благонамеренным людям. И до тех пор пока мы не будем постоянно иметь это в виду, сохраняя бдительность на сей счет, любой из нас может совершить ту же самую ошибку. — Примеч. автора.
* Graduate Record Evaluation — стандартный тест, используемый в американской системе образования. — Примеч. научного ред.
* White Anglo-Saxon Protestant (сокращенно WASP) — человек белой расы, англосаксонского происхождения, протестант по вероисповеданию. Общепринятое обозначение представителя доминирующего в США большинства, относящегося к ‹среднему классу›, имеющего среди предков первопоселенцев из северной части Европы и противопоставляемого всем другим этническим, расовым и религиозным меньшинствам.
* Принятые в США федеральные программы льгот при приеме на работу, при поступлении в университеты и так далее для представителей меньшинств и других находящихся в невыгодной ситуации социальных групп. В самое последнее время под влиянием ‹политической корректности› заметно свертывание подобных программ, ибо они, по мнению идеологов политкорректности, оскорбительны для данных социальных групп, так как неявно предполагают их относительную ущербность и неполноценность.
* Внимательный читатель мог заметить, что это более щадящая форма свойственной нам тенденции умалить достоинства человека, которого мы сами сделали жертвой. В главах 5 и 6 мы имели возможность убедиться в том, что когда кто-то наносит вред другому, то агрессор стремится умалить достоинства жертвы, превратить ее в ‹нечеловека›, а затем снова наносит ей вред. Теперь же мы видим, что когда кто-то со стороны наблюдает, как другому не повезло, он приходит к мысли, что жертва, должно быть. что-то сделала не так и заслужила свою участь. Примеч. автора.
** Намек на то, что в понедельник утром все болельщики футбола, баскетбола и других спортивных игр, которые проводятся по выходным дням, уже точно знают, как закончились матчи.
* Расовая десегрегация — процесс, активизировавшийся в США в середине 50-х гг. XX в., с целью исключить из социальной жизни какие-либо проявления расового неравенства. Толчком к этому послужили известные события: упоминавшееся решение Верховного суда от 1954 г., события 1955 г. в штате Алабама (отказ владельцев автобусных компаний обеспечить чернокожим американцам равные права при пользовании общественным транспортом), решение конгресса США от 1957 г., подтвердившее равные права чернокожего населения на участие в выборах, и др.
* В американской системе среднего и высшего образования принята десятеричная буквенная система оценок (по нисходящей): А, А-, В+, В, В-, С+, С, С-, D. Е.
* Должен заметить, что не все современные этологи согласны с дарвиновской точкой зрения на происхождение улыбки: многие считают, что улыбка зародилась не как знак агрессии, а, скорее, как знак подчинения, предотвращавший или останавливающий агрессию со стороны доминантных, обладающих силой и властью ‹других›. — Примеч. автора.
* Замок Камелот — резиденция легендарного короля Артура, место, где был установлен знаменитый Круглый стол, за которым король восседал со своими верными рыцарями. В переносном смысле — средоточие благородного рыцарства, оплот добродетели и мужества.
* Используемый автором термин ‹communication› в данной главе переводится синонимичными терминами ‹общение› и ‹коммуникация›. — Примеч. научного редактора.
* Конец прошлого века, время правления английской королевы Виктории, отличавшееся показной строгостью нравов.
* Мир ИСТОЧНИКА КОММУНИКАЦИИ: И1 (чувства); И2 (намерения); И3 (поведение — вербальное и невербальное — как оно демонстрируется Источником коммуникации) Мир реципиента коммуникации: Р1 (поведение — вербальное и невербальное — как оно воспринимается реципиентом коммуникации); Р2 (чувства); Р3 (интерпретация намерений Источника коммуникации); Р4 (оценка Источника как личности) (и3 соединено стрелкой с Р1.)
